Anti-aircraft warfare

Anti-aircraft warfare, also called air defence, is about stopping enemies from attacking from the sky. It includes many different tools and methods to protect ships, land bases, and airplanes. These tools can be on the ground, underwater, or in the air, and they work together to keep enemy planes and missiles away.

In the past, countries used big guns to shoot down planes. But later, they started using smart missiles that can guide themselves to their targets. Today, most anti-aircraft systems are made to protect places that are far away, close by, or somewhere in the middle. They are often used in layers, so an enemy has to get through many different kinds of defences to reach its goal.

During big wars like the Second World War, countries such as Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union worked hard to protect their own land from air attacks. Even today, military forces everywhere make sure they have their own air defences to keep themselves safe from threats in the sky.

Terminology

Anti-aircraft warfare has many names, such as counter-air, anti-air, AA, flak, or layered air defence. The word air defence was first used in the UK when they created Air Defence of Great Britain in 1925. After the First World War, people sometimes added "light" or "heavy" (LAA or HAA) to describe different types of guns.

Some fun nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include:

• AA: short for anti-aircraft
• AAA or triple-A: short for anti-aircraft artillery
• flak: from the German word for plane-defence-cannon
• ack-ack: from the British spelling alphabet for "AA"
• archie: a World War I British term

NATO calls anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) the measures taken to protect ships and other forces from attacks by aircraft, ships, submarines, and land-based weapons. There are many types of anti-aircraft weapons, like surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). Some examples are the RIM-66 Standard, Raytheon Standard Missile 6, and the MBDA Aster missile.

Different countries have their own words for air defence. In German, it is called Flak, and in Russian, it is called Protivovozdushnaya oborona. In French, it is called Défense contre les aéronefs (DCA).

General description

Air defence means spotting enemy airplanes and stopping them. This is tricky because airplanes move in three directions, and you need to hit them at just the right spot. This can be done by guiding weapons to follow the plane or by aiming where you think the plane will be when the weapon gets there.

During the 1900s, air defence changed very fast as new airplanes and technologies like radar and guided missiles were invented. Early ways to detect planes were simple eyes and ears, but soon radar became the main tool. Rules are very important so that air defence does not attack friendly planes. These rules can change depending on the situation.

For a long time, guns were the main way to defend against airplanes, but later missiles became more common. Air defence can be set up in different ways, like protecting a single important place or creating a wide area where airplanes cannot safely fly. Other older methods included balloons tied to the ground and bright lights to help spot planes at night.

Organisation

Different countries organise their air defence in various ways. Some, like the Soviet Union in the past, had a separate service just for air defence, with its own fighter planes and ground systems. Others, like the United States Army, have a special branch within the army to handle ground-based air defence.

In places such as Japan or Israel, air defence is part of the air force. In Britain, air defence was shared between the army and navy at different times. During World War II, the RAF Regiment was created to protect airfields. Today, air defence units are often small groups with a few guns or missile launchers, grouped into larger teams for protection.

History

Earliest use

During the American Civil War, the use of balloons by the U.S. Army led the Confederates to develop ways to fight against them. They tried using artillery, small arms, and saboteurs but were not successful. The Confederates also tested using balloons.

The first anti-airplane operation in history happened during the Italo-Turkish War when Turks shot down an airplane using rifle fire, even though they did not have special anti-aircraft weapons. The first aircraft to crash in a war was one piloted by Lieutenant Piero Manzini on August 25, 1912.

The earliest known use of weapons made specifically for anti-aircraft purposes happened during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. After a big defeat at Sedan, French troops tried to communicate using balloons while under siege in Paris. Gustav Krupp created a special gun called the Ballonabwehrkanone (Balloon defence cannon) or BaK, mounted on a horse-drawn carriage to shoot down these balloons.

By the early 20th century, guns for balloons or airships were being developed for both land and sea use. Different types of ammunition were tested, including high explosive, incendiary, and shrapnel. The need for tracers or smoke trails was also recognized. Various countries in Europe were testing these guns, but only a few companies had published information by 1910.

First World War

On September 30, 1915, soldiers of the Serbian Army saw enemy aircraft approaching Kragujevac. They fired at them with shotguns and machine-guns but could not stop them from dropping bombs on the city. During the raid, a soldier named Radoje Ljutovac shot down one of the aircraft with a cannon that was not designed for anti-aircraft use. This was the first time in history that an aircraft was shot down by ground-to-air artillery fire.

The British began preparing for anti-aircraft defense before World War I started. By December 1914, the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve was operating AA guns and searchlights at several ports. The Royal Garrison Artillery was responsible for AA defense in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. They initially used QF 1-pounder "pom-pom"s.

All armies used AA guns, often based on their smaller field guns, propped up to aim skyward. The British Army adopted the 13-pounder, which was used throughout the war. However, these early solutions were not very effective due to lack of experience and tools to measure targets.

The British introduced incendiary shells for Zeppelins, which were hydrogen-filled balloons. They also added tracers to shells for night use and smoke shells for training.

German air attacks on Britain increased in 1915, and AA efforts were seen as ineffective, so a Royal Navy expert, Admiral Sir Percy Scott, was appointed to improve them, especially for London. The air defenses expanded with more guns, and searchlights and acoustic detection methods were developed.

Interwar years

World War I showed that aircraft could be important in battle, but for some nations, the main concern was the threat of strategic air attacks. The experience of air attacks on London by Zeppelins and Gotha G.V bombers greatly influenced the British and was a major reason for forming an independent air force. As aircraft capabilities improved, their role in future wars was expected to be even more critical.

After World War I, there was little financing for military activities in Europe, where the most powerful nations were located. However, there were lessons to learn. The British, who had used AA guns in many places and against night attacks at home, formed an Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section during the war and collected a lot of data. They published the Textbook of Anti-Aircraft Gunnery in 1924–1925, which included recommendations for better equipment.

In 1925, the British adopted a new mechanical computer called the Predictor AA No 1, developed by Vickers. It helped calculate the proper aim for guns. Similar systems were adopted in other countries.

By the mid-1930s, several countries developed radar, which eventually led to the end of sound-locating acoustic devices. Britain also formed the volunteer Observer Corps in 1925 to report hostile aircraft.

Second World War

Poland's AA defenses were not strong enough to stop the German attack, and the situation was similar in other European countries. Serious Anti-Air Warfare began with the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. QF 3.7-inch AA guns were the main ground-based AA defenses, along with Bofors 40 mm guns. The Army's Anti-aircraft command, under RAF Fighter Command, grew to 12 AA divisions. The RAF regiment was formed in 1941 to protect airfields, mainly using Bofors 40 mm guns.

Germany's high-altitude needs were originally planned to be met by a 75 mm gun, but the specifications were later changed to require much higher performance. Krupp's engineers responded with a new 88 mm design, the FlaK 36. First used in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, this gun proved to be one of the best anti-aircraft guns in the world and was also deadly against tanks.

After the Dambusters raid in 1943, a new system was developed to shoot down low-flying aircraft with a single hit. This system used a centralised control system with radar to calculate aim points and send commands to guns, which used hydraulics to aim quickly.

The British began making the Bofors 40 mm gun under license, and it became very important to their war effort. The gun was light, mobile, and powerful enough to shoot down any size aircraft.

Cold War

After World War II, analysis showed that even with the newest anti-aircraft systems, most bombers still reached their targets. However, the advent of the nuclear bomb made even a single bomber reaching its target unacceptable.

Developments from World War II continued into the post-war period. The US Army set up a large air defence network around its cities using radar-guided guns. The US continued into the 1950s with the Skysweeper system, which was almost fully automated. By 1955, the US military considered the 40 mm Bofors obsolete and shifted focus to missile development, such as the Nike Ajax.

In Europe, NATO developed an integrated air defence system called the NATO Air Defence Ground Environment, which later became the NATO Integrated Air Defence System.

The introduction of guided missiles led to a major shift in anti-aircraft strategy. Large guns were replaced by missile systems, followed by smaller missiles that could be mounted on vehicles. By the 1990s, these had replaced most gun-based systems in modern armies.

Post-Cold War

During the 2008 South Ossetia war, air power faced powerful SAM systems like the Buk-M1.

In February 2018, an Israeli F-16 fighter was downed in the Golan Heights after attacking an Iranian target in Syria. In 2006, Israel also lost a helicopter over Lebanon, shot down by a Hezbollah rocket.

AA warfare systems

Anti-aircraft warfare, also called air defence, involves ways to stop or weaken enemy planes from attacking. It includes weapons on the ground, in the water, and in the air, plus sensors and control systems.

Early anti-aircraft weapons were guns, like machine guns and larger artillery pieces. These guns fired special shells with fuses that could explode near enemy planes, spreading metal fragments. Smaller guns were also used because they could fire quickly and follow fast-moving targets. Over time, these guns were replaced by surface-to-air missiles, which began in Nazi Germany during World War II. These missiles can be launched from vehicles, trucks, or fixed places.

Interceptors are special fighter planes made to quickly stop enemy bombers. They fly very fast and high. Radars help find and track enemy planes by sending out electromagnetic waves.

Anti-UAV defences

See also: Unmanned aerial vehicle § Counter unmanned air system

Defences against unmanned aircraft, called UAVs, include lasers, nets, and signal jamming. These defences have been used against drones in battles.

Future developments

Railguns

The US Navy started a railgun project to launch very fast projectiles. Although the project stopped, work continued. The Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force tested a railgun that can fire projectiles very quickly.

Counter-stealth

See also: Stealth aircraft § Countermeasures

As stealth planes make it harder to detect them, new technologies are being developed to find and track these planes. These include special radars and cameras.

Laser

Lasers are being tested as weapons to stop aircraft and missiles. Some modern laser systems have shown promise in experiments.

Force structures

Main article: Air defence forces

Many modern armies, navies, and air forces work together to protect their areas from attacks from the air. In some countries, like the British Army, air defence is part of the artillery. In others, like the Pakistan Army, it is a separate group. Some countries, like the old USSR, have special branches just for protecting their land from air attacks.

Navy

Smaller ships often use machine guns or fast cannons to defend against low-flying planes, especially when linked to radar. Bigger ships, like destroyers and cruisers, can be as dangerous to aircraft as land defences. Aircraft carriers are very well protected because they have many ships around them and can send up fighter planes to guard against attacks. Countries like Japan and the United States use special ships to create defensive zones around their important areas.

Some modern submarines also have systems to shoot down aircraft, which helps protect them from threats.

Layered air defence

Naval forces often use layers of defence to protect their ships. The first layer is provided by aircraft overhead. If that fails, missiles from nearby ships take over. Finally, ships have quick-firing guns as a last line of defence.

Army

Armies use different systems to defend against air attacks, from small portable launchers to large missile systems. These systems force planes to fly lower, where guns can bring them down. The United States Army once played a big role in defending the country with missile systems.

Air force

Air forces mainly use fighter jets with missiles to defend against attackers. They also use ground-based missile systems to protect their bases. Some countries put all air defence duties under their air forces.

Area air defence

Area air defence protects large regions instead of just one point. Both armies and air forces have handled this in the past. For example, during the Gulf War, missile systems helped protect places like Saudi Arabia and Israel.

Tactics

Most modern systems that fight against airplanes can move around easily. Even bigger systems are often put on trailers and can be quickly taken apart or set up again. In the past, this was not always true. Early missile systems were heavy and needed a lot of support; many could not be moved at all. Today, there is more focus on making these systems mobile. Most modern systems are either moved by trucks or tracked vehicles, or pulled behind vehicles. Having many parts, like launchers, radars, and command posts, all on vehicles helps. A system that does not move can be found and destroyed, but a moving system can appear where it is not expected. Soviet systems focused on mobility, learning from battles in the Vietnam War.

Many countries have developed ways to stop air defence systems. They use special weapons like anti-radiation missiles and advanced electronic tools to reduce the effect of an enemy’s air defence. This creates a back-and-forth race; as better tools to block or attack are made, so are better missile systems that can avoid these attacks.

Insurgents have used weapons like Stinger missiles supplied by the United States against Soviet airplanes during their time in Afghanistan. Rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) are often used against helicopters. For example, Somali fighters used RPGs during the 1993 Battle of Mogadishu. In some cases, RPGs have been used against helicopters in Afghanistan, such as in Operation Anaconda. One strong point of RPGs is that they can explode in the air, sending out pieces that can hit a helicopter taking off or landing. Insurgents also try to destroy airplanes when they are on the ground, either by entering airbase areas or by using indirect fire like mortars. Recently, in the Syrian Civil War, ATGM weapons have been used against helicopters as they land.