Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was an early cradle of civilization along the lower part of the Nile River in the eastern part of North Africa. It began in prehistoric Egypt around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology). In that time, Upper and Lower Egypt were joined together by Menes. Most Egyptologists believe Menes was the same person as Narmer. The history of ancient Egypt was a series of strong kingdoms. These were separated by "Intermediate Periods," when things were less stable. The strong kingdoms came in three main times: the Old Kingdom in the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom in the Middle Bronze Age, and the New Kingdom in the Late Bronze Age.

Egypt was most powerful during the New Kingdom. Its rule reached much of Nubia and a large part of the Levant. After this time, Egypt slowly grew weaker. Over its long history, other peoples invaded or took control of Egypt. These included the Hyksos, the Kushites, the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans. People describe the end of ancient Egypt in different ways. Some point to the end of the Late Period, during the Wars of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. Others point to the end of the Greek-ruled Ptolemaic Kingdom during the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. In AD 642, the Arab conquest of Egypt ended the region's Greco-Roman period, which had lasted about a thousand years.

Ancient Egypt grew strong partly because its people learned to farm along the Nile. The river's floods could be predicted, and the fertile valley was watered through controlled irrigation. This made extra crops, which fed more people and helped their society and culture grow. With extra resources, the government supported mining in the valley and the desert nearby. It also helped the early development of an independent writing system, and it organized large building and farming projects. It backed trade with other lands and kept a military to show Egyptian power across the Near East. A group of educated scribes, religious leaders, and officials worked under the ruling pharaoh. They guided these activities and helped the Egyptian people work together within an elaborate system of religious beliefs.

Ancient Egypt achieved many things. Its builders used quarrying, surveying, and construction methods to create large pyramids, temples, and obelisks. The people developed a system of mathematics and a practical, useful system of medicine. They also built irrigation systems, improved agricultural production techniques, and made the first known planked boats. They made Egyptian faience and advanced glass technology. They created new forms of literature and signed the earliest known peace treaty, which was agreed with the Hittite Empire, based in Anatolia. Egyptian art and architecture were copied widely, and its antiquities were carried to distant parts of the world to be studied and admired. Its huge ruins inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for thousands of years. Starting in the early modern period, Europeans and Egyptians came to respect antiquities and excavations more. This has led to much scientific study of ancient Egypt and its society, and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.

History

Main articles: History of ancient Egypt, Population history of Egypt, North Africa, Northeast Africa, and Sahara

The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. Its fertile floodplain helped people build a settled agricultural economy and a more organized society. Long ago, Egypt's climate was much less dry than it is today, and many animals were first domesticated. Over about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture grew from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization. Its people began using written symbols that later developed into hieroglyphs. The first kings set up their capital at Memphis. This helped them manage the work, farming, and trade of the land.

Major advances in building, art, and tools were made during the Old Kingdom, and the Giza pyramids were built then. Later, weaker kings faced challenges from local leaders, and a time of hunger and fighting followed. The country was reunited and entered the Middle Kingdom, a time of calm and new art and building. Around 1785 BC, a people called the Hyksos took control of the north. Thebes grew strong and pushed them out. The New Kingdom that followed brought great wealth, and Ramesses II later agreed to a peace deal with the Hittites. Over the next centuries, Egypt faced invasions and changing rulers, including the Persian Empire. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great entered Egypt. In 30 BC, it became a province of the Roman Empire.

Government and economy

Administration and commerce

The pharaoh was the ruler of the land and, at least in theory, controlled its land and resources. He was the top military commander and the head of the government. His second in command, the vizier, looked after the king's affairs and the archives. The country was divided into as many as 42 regions called nomes, each led by a nomarch. The temples were the center of the economy. They stored wealth in granaries and treasuries. Ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period. Instead, they used grain and the deben, a weight of copper or silver, as a common measure. Coins came from abroad in the fifth century BC. At first, they were used as precious metal.

Social status

Egyptian society had clear ranks, and social status was clearly shown. Farmers made up most of the population. However, their crops belonged to the state, the temple, or the noble family that owned the land. Farmers also had to work on projects through a corvée system. Scribes and officials formed the upper class. It is unclear whether slavery existed in the same way it is understood today. Even a peasant could ask the vizier for justice. Enslaved people were also usually cared for by doctors. Men and women were seen as mostly equal under the law. Some women, such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII, became pharaohs. Others served as Divine Wives of Amun. Still, ancient Egyptian women rarely held official roles in the government.

Legal system

The pharaoh was officially the head of the legal system. He was responsible for upholding Ma'at, the idea of order and justice. No legal codes from ancient Egypt survive. However, court records show that Egyptian law focused on reaching agreements and solving conflicts. Local councils of elders handled small disputes. More serious cases went to the Great Kenbet. From the New Kingdom, oracles also helped decide cases. People asked them "yes" or "no" questions, which were written on papyrus or an ostracon.

Agriculture

See also: Gardens of ancient Egypt

The yearly floods of the Nile left rich fertile soil, which helped Egypt grow plenty of food. Land management was important because taxes depended on how much land a person owned. Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). During the growing season, farmers planted seeds and watered their fields with ditches and canals. They cut the crops with sickles. Then they separated the grain using a flail in a process called threshing. They removed the chaff through winnowing. The main crops were emmer and barley, which were used to make bread and beer. Flax provided fibers for linen, and papyrus was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, which were watered by hand.

Animals

The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was part of the cosmic order. Animals, both domesticated and wild, were important for spirituality, companionship, and food. Cattle were the most important farm animals. The number of cattle a person owned showed how important they were. Other animals included sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry, as well as fish from the Nile. Oxen served as beasts of burden and helped plow the fields. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period. Cats, dogs, and monkeys were common pets, while royalty kept lions from Sub-Saharan African. During the Late Period, people worshipped the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth in animal form.

Natural resources

Further information: Mining industry of Egypt and Stone quarries of ancient Egypt

Egypt had many natural resources, including building stone, copper, lead, gold, and semiprecious stones. These allowed the Egyptians to build monuments, make tools, and fashion jewelry. Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification. The same area also provided gypsum for plaster. Gold was found in Nubia, and the Wadi Hammamat was a source of granite and gold. Flint was the first mineral used to make tools. Copper was the most important metal for tools, and it was made from malachite ore. Later on, miners also worked galena and collected emeralds and amethyst.

Trade

The ancient Egyptians traded with foreign neighbors to get goods that were not found in Egypt. They traded with Nubia for gold and incense, and they also traded with Palestine. An Egyptian colony in southern Canaan dates to just before the First Dynasty. Tell es-Sakan in present-day Gaza was likely the main Egyptian site in the region. Narmer had pottery made in Canaan and sent back to Egypt. Trade with Byblos provided timber. Trade with Punt brought gold, resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals. Egypt got tin and copper from Anatolia for making bronze. The blue stone lapis lazuli came from far-away Afghanistan. Greece and Crete supplied olive oil.

Language

Main article: Egyptian language

The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic language. It is closely related to Berber and Semitic languages. It also has links to other Afro-Asiatic languages, such as the Chadic languages, the Cushitic languages, and the Ethio-Semitic languages. Egyptian has the longest known history of any language. It was written from about 3200 BC until the Middle Ages. Its phases are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian, Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. Over time, the language changed from a synthetic language to a more analytic one. Its word order also changed, from verb–subject–object to subject–verb–object. Writing began with hieroglyphic script around 3000 BC. This script used hundreds of symbols. Scribes also used the quicker hieratic script. Later, Demotic became the most common style. The Coptic alphabet replaced the older scripts. It is a changed form of the Greek alphabet. Coptic is still used in the worship of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and some of its traces remain in modern Egyptian Arabic. Hieroglyphs were not well understood until the 1820s. That was after the Rosetta Stone was found and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion.

The language had 25 consonants. It built its words from triliteral roots, and suffixes were added to show person. Stress and particles worked in their own ways. Adjectives were formed from nouns through a process called nisbation. Writing first appeared with kingship, on labels for items in royal tombs. Mostly, scribes did the writing. Classical Egyptian was used for famous works such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts until about 1300 BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward. It appears in Ramesside documents and love poetry. Tomb autobiographies, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni, developed. So did teaching texts called Sebayt. Famous works include the Story of Sinuhe and the Westcar Papyrus, which holds stories told to Khufu by his sons. Also famous is the Instruction of Amenemope. The Ipuwer papyrus describes natural disasters. The Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any were written in the everyday language of the people. From about 700 BC, stories were written in demotic. Many demotic stories from the Greco-Roman period were set in earlier times, when great pharaohs such as Ramesses II ruled.

Culture

Further information: Clothing in ancient Egypt, Dance in ancient Egypt, and Music of Egypt § Old Kingdom

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers who worked the land. Their homes were built of mudbrick to stay cool during the hot day. Each home had a kitchen with a grindstone and a small oven for baking bread. Ceramics held food, drink, and other materials. Egyptians cared about being clean and looking nice. Most bathed in the Nile and used soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their bodies. Upper-class men and women wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children did not wear clothes until about age 12. Mothers cared for the children, and fathers earned the family's income.

Music and dance were popular with people who could afford them. Later, Egyptians played bells, cymbals, drums, and lutes and lyres brought from Asia. The sistrum, a rattle-like musical instrument, was especially important in religious ceremonies. People also enjoyed games. Senet, a board game where moves depended on luck, was popular from the earliest times. Mehen was a similar game played on a round board. "Hounds and Jackals," also called 58 holes, was another board game. The first complete set was found in a Theban tomb of the pharaoh Amenemhat IV, which dates to the 13th Dynasty. Children enjoyed juggling and ball games. A tomb at Beni Hasan shows people wrestling. Wealthy people also enjoyed hunting, fishing, and boating. The workers' village of Deir el-Medina has been excavated, and it gives one of the most detailed records of community life in the ancient world, covering almost four hundred years.

Ordinary homes were made of mudbrick and wood, so they have not lasted. Important temples and tombs were built of stone to last a very long time. Among the New Kingdom palaces that still survive are those at Malkata and Amarna. The step pyramid of Djoser is a set of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. A mastaba was an earlier flat-roofed tomb built over a burial chamber. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, and the pyramid shape continued in the pyramids of Nubia.

Main articles: Art of ancient Egypt and Portraiture in ancient Egypt

Ancient Egyptian art had practical purposes. For over 3500 years, artists followed forms and rules that began in the Old Kingdom. This gave their art a sense of order and balance. Pictures and writing were closely connected on walls, coffins, and statues. The Narmer Palette is one example. Artists carved statues from stone and sometimes used wood, which was cheaper. Paints came from minerals and were mixed with gum arabic. Pharaohs used reliefs to show victories and religious scenes. Ordinary people had funerary art, such as ushabti statues and books of the dead. During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models of daily life were placed in tombs. They were meant to copy the activities of the living in the afterlife. Styles sometimes changed. After the Hyksos invasion, Minoan-style wall paintings were found in Avaris. The biggest change came in the Amarna Period, when figures were changed to fit Akhenaten's new religious ideas. This Amarna art was quickly abandoned after his death.

Beliefs about gods and the afterlife were part of Egyptian life from the beginning. Pharaohs ruled by the divine right of kings. Egyptians asked gods for help and protection, and they believed they should please them with offerings and prayers. The pantheon of gods changed over time, and the many myths were never organized into one system. Gods were worshiped in temples run by priests, and most people could worship private statues at home. Egyptians believed that a person's spiritual parts could live on after death if they were judged worthy. The heart was weighed against a "feather of truth." Those found worthy could continue to exist in spiritual form. Those who were not were judged by Ammit the Devourer and were not allowed to continue.

The ancient Egyptians had detailed burial customs, which they believed were needed for life after death. These included mummification, burial ceremonies, and goods placed in the tomb for the afterlife. Over time, wealthier Egyptians used stone tombs and artificial mummification. This process involved removing the internal organs and wrapping the body in linen. By the New Kingdom, the best method took 70 days and used natron to dry the body. Mummies from the Late Period were placed in painted cartonnage cases. All burials included goods for the deceased, and funeral texts were often placed in the grave. Living relatives were expected to bring food to the tomb and say prayers.

Military

Main article: Military of ancient Egypt

The ancient Egyptian military protected Egypt from outside groups and helped Egypt stay powerful in the ancient Near East. It guarded mining trips to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom. It also took part in conflicts inside Egypt during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. Soldiers kept forts along trade routes, such as the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. A fortress at Sile was a base for trips to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, several pharaohs sent the army to take control of Kush and parts of the Levant.

11th Dynasty model of Egyptian soldiers from the tomb of Mesehti, Upper Egypt

11th Dynasty model of Nubian archers from a tomb in Asyut, Upper Egypt

Common weapons included bows and arrows, spears, and round shields. The shields were made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, soldiers began using chariots, which the Hyksos had first brought to Egypt. After bronze came into use, weapons and armor got better. The khopesh was adopted from soldiers in Asia. Pharaohs were usually shown leading the army, and some, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, may have done so. Other people have argued that kings of this period did not go to the front lines. Most soldiers came from the general population. In and after the New Kingdom, though, Egypt hired soldiers from Nubia, Kush, and Libya to fight for it.

Technology, medicine and mathematics

Main article: Egyptian technology

Ancient Egypt reached a fairly high level of skill in technology, medicine, and mathematics. Traditional empiricism, as shown in the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system. Even before the Old Kingdom, they had made a glassy material called faience. It was used to make beads, tiles, and small figures. They also made glass objects in many colors. Egyptian doctors were famous across the ancient Near East, and some, such as Imhotep, were remembered long after their deaths. Their medical papyri show empirical knowledge of the body, injuries, and treatments. Egyptian sailors also built large ships. Early Egyptians knew how to join planks of wood into a ship hull, and the Abydos boats are among the oldest known planked ships. The "Khufu ship" was sealed into a pit near the Great Pyramid of Giza. Large ships sailed to Byblos and to the Land of Punt. In 2011, archaeologists digging at Mersa Gawasis found signs of a harbor that started early voyages, including Hatshepsut's expedition to Punt.

The earliest known math calculations date to the Naqada period and show a fully developed numeral system. Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that Egyptians could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. They used fractions and measured areas and volumes. They understood basic ideas of algebra and geometry. Ancient Egyptian mathematicians also knew the Pythagorean theorem as a practical rule. They estimated the area of a circle with a simple method that gave a fairly good approximation of π.

Population

Further information: Population history of Egypt, Sahara pump theory, and African humid period

See also: Ancient Egyptian race controversy

Main article: Genetic history of Egypt

Estimates suggest the population was between 1 and 1.5 million in the 3rd millennium BC. It may have grown to 2 to 3 million by the 1st millennium BC, and then it grew a lot near the end of that millennium. Megaliths at Nabta Playa, built by Neolithic people, are found near Aswan in Upper Egypt. Arrowheads have been found in Al Faiyum in Lower Egypt. Most scholars see the people of the Nile Valley as a mix of northern Africans, "neolithic" Saharans, Nilotic hunters, and early Nubians who lived along the river. Some influence came from the Levant. The UNESCO General History of Africa series agrees. It describes Egypt as an African civilization with a mixed population and some Eurasian influence. People also moved in from southern Africa and the Sahara. Upper Egypt is now seen as the starting point for uniting Egypt. This is supported by archaeological, anthropological, genetic and linguistic evidence. Rulers from Upper Egypt, including the 11th, 12th, 17th, 18th and 25th dynasties, are mainly credited with bringing the country back together and reviving Egyptian culture.

Scientists still disagree about the genetic makeup of ancient Egyptians. Part of the reason is that DNA results from the Amarna royal mummies do not match. A 2025 study in the journal Nature looked at the complete genetic code of a high-status man called "Old Kingdom individual (NUE001)", who lived between 2855 and 2570 BC. His burial customs fit the Third and Fourth Dynasty. Most of his ancestry came from North African Neolithic people. About 20% came from the eastern Fertile Crescent, which suggests a pattern of wide cultural and demographic expansion from the Mesopotamian region. Earlier studies linked ancient Egyptians to Egyptians today and to Middle Eastern groups, especially from the Levant. Ancient Egyptians also had ties with Nubians to the south. Their contact went back over 5,000 years, and it included both living peacefully side by side and times of conflict. Modern Egyptians and Nubians have mixed with other groups since the Roman period, including through the African Slave Trade and the Spread of Islam. Studies of modern Upper Egyptians found common African markers, such as E1b1. However, a 2025 review said these results were preliminary. Dental features linked to Khoisan people were found at a predynastic cemetery at Adaïma. Some scholars, such as Christopher Ehret, say more research is needed. They link ancient Egyptians to the Horn of Africa and Northeast Africa. Mainstream scholars think early southern Egypt was shaped by people from the Sudan, tropical Africa and the Sahara. In pharaonic times, physical features varied from region to region. Upper Egyptians were closer to Sudanese and southern African populations. Lower Egyptians had closer links to Levantine and Mediterranean groups. Stiebling and Helft concluded that Egypt was a mixed civilization. Some people looked more Middle Eastern, and others looked more like Ethiopians. Recent studies stress ethnic diversity. Foreigners such as Nubians, Libyans and Asiatics lived in Egypt. Some scholars also link ancient Egyptians to the Land of Punt.

Legacy

See also: Egyptian Revival architecture and Tourism in Egypt

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt left a lasting legacy. Egypt strongly influenced the Kingdom of Kush and Meroë. These kingdoms copied Egyptian religious and building styles. They also used Egyptian writing as the basis of the Meroitic script. Meroitic was the oldest written language in Africa after Egyptian. People used it from about the 2nd century BC until the early 5th century AD. The cult of the goddess Isis became popular in the Roman Empire. Obelisks and other objects from Egypt were carried back to Rome. The Romans also brought building materials from Egypt to build structures in the Egyptian style. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied Egypt and wrote about it. The Romans came to see Egypt as a place of mystery. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egypt's old religion faded as Christianity and later Islam spread. Still, scholars kept writing about Egyptian history. Two of them were Dhul-Nun al-Misri and al-Maqrizi.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers brought back ancient objects and wrote about their trips. This sparked a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. You can see it in symbols such as the Eye of Providence and the Great Seal of the United States. This new interest sent collectors to Egypt, and many important objects were taken, bought, or given away. Napoleon started the first scientific studies in Egyptology. He brought about 150 scientists and artists to study and record Egypt's natural history. Their work was published in the Description de l'Égypte. In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists began to value respecting Egypt's culture when digging up sites. Since the 2010s, the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities has managed digs and the return of artifacts.