Early modern period

The early modern period (c. 1500 – c. 1800) is a historical period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. It is considered to have started at the beginning of the 16th century (c. 1500), and ended around the 18th or 19th century (1700–1800). In Europe, it followed the Middle Ages and led into modern times.

Many events could mark the start of this period, such as the Renaissance, the printing revolution in the 1440s, the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Age of Discovery, or the Reformation. It is often said to have ended with the French Revolution, and sometimes the American Revolution or Napoleon's rise to power.

One of the biggest changes during this time was the spread of globalization. The idea of a New World being added to the Old World was a major shift. New economies and institutions grew and became more connected around the world. Other important developments included the Scientific Revolution, faster technological progress, more secularized governments, better travel because of improved maps and ships, and the formation of nation states.

History of the concept

The idea of the early modern period began with the study of European history. For a long time, historians split European history into three parts: ancient, medieval, and modern times. The words "early modern" were first used in the early 1900s, but mostly just to mean the first part of modern times. A historian named Lynn Thorndike was the first to suggest thinking of the early modern period as its own special time in history. His idea became more popular among historians, especially in North America, during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1990s.

By the 1980s, some historians started using this idea to talk about places outside of Europe, like Tokugawa Japan. They noticed that many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and others, were going through similar changes. These changes included growth in cities, changes in money and trade, and movements in religion. Some historians believe the early modern period, from around 1500 to 1800, was a time when different parts of the world started to connect more with each other. This connection happened mainly through travel by sea, sharing of plants and animals, and the growth of trade across the world.

Overview

The early modern period, lasting roughly from 1500 to 1800, was a time of big changes around the world. In Europe, old ways of running things changed. Feudalism, where land was worked by people who were tied to it, faded away. Big events like the Protestant Reformation caused fights and wars, including the Thirty Years' War. New ideas in science and trade also began to grow.

This period saw many new discoveries and contacts between different parts of the world. Europeans began to explore and settle in the Americas, and trading posts were set up in Asia and Africa. This brought many new plants, animals, and ideas to different places. Big empires grew in places like the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire, and new ways of thinking and organizing governments began to take shape, leading into later revolutions in America and France.

Asia and Africa

East Asia

In the early modern period, countries in East Asia like China, Korea, and Japan often tried to stay away from the rest of the world. However, this wasn't always successful or consistent. By the end of this period, these nations were mostly closed off and not very interested in Europeans, even though trading grew in places like Guangzhou and Dejima.

Chinese dynasties

China began the Ming dynasty in 1368, a time when China was ahead in math and science. But soon, Europe caught up and went past China in these areas. Many historians think that China's focus on tradition and bureaucracy stopped them from making big scientific advances. Unlike Europe, China didn't have many scientists challenging old ideas. China invented gunpowder long ago, but it was Europe that made the first handheld firearms in the late 1400s. China started using these firearms in 1540 after the Portuguese brought them to Japan.

During the Ming dynasty, cities grew as the population increased and work became more specialized. Big cities like Nanjing and Beijing became centers for small industries making things like paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain. Markets in smaller towns mostly sold food and simple goods like pins or oil. In the 1500s, China traded a lot with Portugal, Spain, and the Dutch, bringing in lots of silver that China needed. Before this, China used paper money, but it stopped working well in the 1400s. The silver trade helped fix China's economy, making silver more valuable in China than in Spain.

Later, China became more isolated, stopping the building of big ships. But the economy still struggled because too much silver from Spanish colonies flowed in, causing prices to rise. Wars to protect Korea from Japan also cost a lot. The European trade slowdown in the 1620s made things worse, and China's trading partners cut off ties. Problems like the Little Ice Age, bad weather, and diseases made things even harder. These issues led to challenges for the Ming dynasty, and it fell in 1644 to the Qing dynasty.

The Qing dynasty, from 1644 to 1912, took on many Chinese traditions but governed in its own way. After Ming forces led by Li Zicheng took Beijing, the last Ming emperor died, and the Manchus, who became the Qing, took control with help from a former Ming general.

Japanese shogunates

The Sengoku period from about 1467 to the late 1500s was a time of constant fighting in Japan. After meeting the Portuguese in 1543, Japan adopted new technologies like guns and ships, as well as ideas like Christianity and new foods.

Order was mostly restored by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The Azuchi-Momoyama period began around 1568 when Nobunaga entered Kyoto and ended when Tokugawa Ieyasu won the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Tokugawa became shōgun in 1603, starting the Edo period, which lasted until 1868. During this time, Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate from Edo, now Tokyo.

Society was strictly organized into classes: the daimyōs (feudal lords) at the top, followed by samurai (warriors), and then farmers, artisans, and traders. Japan closed itself off to foreigners except for a few exceptions. Over time, taxes on farmers didn't change with inflation, making samurai poorer and causing conflicts, but nothing major happened until foreign powers arrived.

Korean dynasty

In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye started the Joseon dynasty, moving the capital to modern-day Seoul. The dynasty followed Confucian ideas, which shaped Korean culture. King Sejong the Great created the Korean alphabet. In the late 1500s, Japan invaded Korea twice but was stopped by Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his turtle ships. Later, Korea was invaded by the Manchurians, who took over China as the Qing dynasty. In 1637, King Injo had to give up princesses to the Qing leader Dorgon.

South Asia

Indian empires

The Mughal Empire began around 1526 and ruled much of India by the late 1600s and early 1700s. It was a large Islamic empire that became a major economy and manufacturing center. The empire was well-organized until the death of Emperor Aurangzeb. The Maratha Confederacy took over from the Mughals in the 1740s and grew until the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 stopped them.

British and Dutch colonization

European powers began taking over parts of India in the mid-1700s. The British East India Company started controlling Bengal after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. By 1818, the company had defeated the Maratha Confederacy. After a rebellion in 1857, the British government took direct control, starting the British Raj. In 1819, Stamford Raffles set up Singapore as a trading post for Britain.

Southeast Asia

At the start of this time, the Spice Route passed through Majapahit, an empire based on Java. It was one of the last big Hindu empires in Southeast Asia. Majapahit had influence over places like Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and eastern Indonesia. It faced challenges from the rising Sultanate of Malacca. The Portuguese captured Malacca in 1511, and later the Sultanate of Johor was created. In Borneo, Brunei had a golden age under Sultan Bolkiah but faced wars with Spain and internal conflicts later on.

West Asia and North Africa

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire grew and strengthened during this time, reaching a peak known as the Pax Ottomana. The empire expanded into North Africa and fought with the Safavid Empire in Persia.

North Africa

The Ottomans took over Egypt in 1517 and set up control in Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripolitania between 1519 and 1551. Morocco stayed independent under the Sharifan dynasty.

Safavid Iran

The Safavid Empire started around 1501 and ruled Persia, bringing back a strong Iranian identity. They faced many fights with the Sunni Ottoman Empire. The Safavids traded with Europe and Central Asia, bringing in goods like silk and spices and sending out carpets, textiles, and other products.

Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns

From the 1500s to the early 1700s, Central Asia was ruled by Uzbeks, and eastern parts by Pashtuns. The Pashtuns later formed the Durrani Empire after invasions into India and Persia.

Sub-Saharan Africa

The Songhai Empire controlled trade across the Sahara Desert, taking over cities like Timbuktu and Jenne. The empire made Islam its official religion and built mosques, bringing in scholars to Gao.

Europe

Main article: Early modern Europe

Many big changes happened in Europe around the start of the 1500s. Key events include the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain, the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England, this time often starts with the Tudor period beginning in 1485 when Henry VII won the Battle of Bosworth against Richard III. Early modern European history usually covers the time from the late 1400s through the Age of Enlightenment in the 1600s and 1700s, ending around the start of the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s.

The early modern period ended with big events like the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and the Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire at the Congress of Vienna. By this time, the British and Russian empires had grown powerful, while big empires in Asia like Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, and Qing China began to slow down.

Gunpowder and firearms

Further information: Military Revolution

When gunpowder came to Europe, it was mostly used to make weapons for fighting. Even though it started in China, Europe used it to create early guns. These new weapons made old armor useless because guns could shoot through it. The musket became a common weapon, replacing older guns like the arquebus.

European kingdoms and movements

During this time, the Holy Roman Empire was a group of lands in Central Europe led by a Holy Roman Emperor. It began with Otto I and ended when Francis II dissolved it in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. The Renaissance was a time of new ideas that started in Italy in the late 1300s and spread across Europe. It included new ways of learning from old sources, new painting styles, and improvements in education.

Notable individuals

Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with movable type around 1439. Nicolaus Copernicus changed how we see the universe by saying the Earth was not the center. Machiavelli wrote about politics, and artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo created famous works.

Christians and Christendom

Main articles: History of Christianity and Christendom

Christianity faced challenges, like the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and efforts to change the church. These included movements led by people like Martin Luther, which led to new forms of the faith.

End of the Crusades and Unity

The Hussite Crusades (1419–1434) were wars against followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia. They ended without a clear winner. The last big crusade happened in 1456 to help Belgrade against the Ottoman Empire. A famous victory there is still celebrated today.

Later, the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 allowed rulers to choose their country's religion. This was confirmed by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which also helped create the idea of countries having their own power.

Inquisitions and Reformations

Main articles: Reformation, Counter-Reformation, Inquisition, and Spanish Inquisition

The church created groups called Inquisitions to enforce its rules. One famous example was the Spanish Inquisition, which lasted from 1478 to 1834. It dealt with many serious issues.

The Reformation began when Martin Luther in Germany shared his Ninety-five Theses in 1517, challenging some church practices. This led to new Protestant groups. In England, this led to the start of the English Reformation and the creation of the Anglican Church.

Two main Inquisitions were active later:

• The Portuguese Inquisition (1536–1821)
• The Roman Inquisition (1542–circa 1860)

The Counter-Reformation started in 1545 with the Council of Trent to answer the changes from the Reformation and strengthen the church.

Tsardom of Russia

Main article: Tsardom of Russia

In 1547, Grand Duke Ivan IV became the first Tsar of Russia. He made many changes, like creating new laws and expanding Russia’s land by adding areas like Kazan and Astrakhan. By the end of the 1500s, Russia had grown into a big country with many different peoples and religions.

Mercantile capitalism

Main articles: Mercantilism and Merchant capitalism

Trade and the new economy

People in Europe wanted goods like gold, silver, and spices from far away. They used new tools like the compass and better ships to find new trade routes to Asia.

Piracy's Golden Age

Main article: Golden Age of Piracy

There was a time called the Golden Age of Piracy from the mid-1600s to the mid-1700s. Many sailors turned to piracy, attacking ships and colonies, especially around the Caribbean and the Indian Ocean.

European states and politics

From the 1400s to the 1700s, Europe saw the start of colonies, stronger governments, and the early forms of today’s nations. This time included big changes in art and thinking, led by people like Leonardo da Vinci.

The Peace of Westphalia came from the first big meeting of countries to make peace. The Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 ended a war between France and Spain.

French power

Important leaders in France during this time included Mazarin, Colbert, Turenne, and Vauban. French culture also grew, with famous figures like Molière and Racine.

Early English revolutions

Before big changes in government, there were wars in England between the king and Parliament. These wars ended with Parliament winning, and later, a new king returned to power. In 1688, a peaceful change led to a system where Parliament had more control over the king.

International balance of power

The Peace of Utrecht in 1713 ended a big war and helped keep balance among European countries. It also marked the rise of British naval power.

Americas

Main articles: European colonization of the Americas, History of colonialism, and New World

European colonization from the 15th to 19th centuries brought Christianity to Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Australia, and the Philippines.

Exploration and conquest of the Americas

Main articles: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Portuguese colonization of the Americas

Colonial Latin America

See also: New Spain, Spanish Empire, and Colonial Brazil

In the beginning, Portuguese settlements in Brazil were less important than their other colonies. They focused on growing sugarcane and used workers from Africa. Other European countries later tried similar methods in new areas.

Colonial North America

See also: New Spain, New France, New Netherland, Colonial history of the United States, and History of Canada (1763–1867)

In the 1600s, many countries wanted control of North America. Spain had small settlements, while France, the Netherlands, and Britain created larger colonies. The British colonies grew from 1607 to 1733. The Dutch started settlements called New Netherland, now New York State. France built Quebec City in Eastern Canada. After losing a war, France gave its land to Britain.

The Thirteen Colonies in British North America wanted independence. They felt unfair about taxes and lacking representation. They declared independence on 4 July 1776 and became the United States of America after the American Revolutionary War ended in 1783. The British colonies in Canada stayed loyal to Britain.

Atlantic World

See also: Atlantic history

One big change during the early modern period was the creation of something called the Atlantic World. This idea includes places like Western Europe, West Africa, and the Americas. It helps us understand how these areas developed on their own and how they connected through things like trade, moving people, and sharing cultures.

Religion, science, philosophy, and education

Further information: History of religion and History of philosophy

Protestant Reformation

Main article: Reformation

The early modern period began with big changes in religion, especially because of the Reformation. This was when many people in Europe started to question old ideas about the church. One important idea came from Calvinism, which some say helped shape how people thought about money and work.

Counter-Reformation and Jesuits

Main article: Counter-Reformation

In response to these changes, the Catholic Church made its own changes too. This was called the Counter-Reformation. They created new schools to train priests and started new groups to help people stay strong in their faith. One of these new groups was the Jesuits, who worked hard to help churches and teach people.

Scientific Revolution

See also: Scientific Revolution and Science in the Age of Enlightenment

During this time, many new discoveries changed how people understood the world. Scientists started using careful observations and experiments instead of just trusting old books. Some big changes included learning that the Earth goes around the Sun, not the other way around. People also made new tools like telescopes and started to understand how the human body works better. These ideas helped shape how we think about science today.

Technology

Main article: Renaissance technology

People also invented many new tools and machines. Some of these were better ways to build docks, new kinds of stoves, and even early forms of newspapers. These inventions made life easier and helped people share ideas faster.

Enlightenment and reason

Main article: 17th century in philosophy

Further information: Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment and Philosophical skepticism

The Age of Enlightenment was a time when people started to rely more on reason and thinking for themselves instead of just following old traditions. Philosophers during this time tried to understand everything from how we know things to how governments should work. Books and discussions helped spread these new ideas across Europe. This period ended around the year 1800 when a new way of thinking called Romanticism began.

Humanism

Main article: Humanism

Humanism was an important idea during this time too. It focused on learning to speak and write well, and studying old writings from places like Greece and Rome. This helped people think more about what it means to be human and how we can improve our lives through learning and sharing ideas.

Death in the early modern period

Mortality rates

During the early modern period, it was very hard to know exactly how many people died because records were not always kept well. However, we do have some information from Europe that tells us about how many babies died before their first birthday. One book called Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900 by Tommy Bengtsson shares this information.

European infant mortality rates

Many babies did not live to see their first birthday during this time. For example, in parts of what we now call Germany, about 108 babies died for every 1,000 babies born. In other places like Bavaria, the number was even higher, between 140 and 190 babies per 1,000 births. In France, Beauvaisis saw between 140 and 160 babies die per 1,000 births. In Venice, about 134 babies died per 1,000 births. In Geneva, the number was between 80 and 110. In Sweden, it varied: in Linköping about 70–95 babies died per 1,000 births, in Sundsvall it was about 48, and in Vastanfors it was as low as 41.

Causes of infant mortality

One big reason for these high numbers was the weather. Cold winters were especially hard on newborn babies. For example, in Italy, where summers are very warm, the cold winter temperatures caused many babies to die in their first ten days of life—four times more than in the summer. This happened in many places across Europe, even though each place had its own ways of living and working.

Capital punishment

Main article: Capital punishment § Modern era

During this time, people’s thoughts about death changed a lot. New ways of punishing wrongdoers were created, and more people were put to death in public places. This made people value their lives and their bodies after death even more. New tools were made to carry out these punishments, and the number of people executed grew. Gibbeting became a common way to display the bodies of those who had broken the law.