Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for Africa was a time when many countries in Europe wanted to take control of Africa. This happened mostly in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Seven big European countries were involved: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom.

These countries were driven by new inventions and a desire for more land and resources. They sent soldiers and settlers to take over parts of Africa. In 1884, leaders from these countries met in Berlin to make rules about how they would share Africa. This meeting is often seen as the start of the "scramble".

After World War II, the European countries began to lose their power. Most African countries became independent during the Cold War. In 1964, African leaders decided to keep the borders that were drawn during the colonial time to avoid fights between countries. They focused on working together as one Africa.

Background

Main article: Colonisation of Africa

By 1841, people from Europe had set up small trading spots along the coasts of Africa. They mostly stayed near the ocean and traded with local people. Much of Africa’s interior was hard for Europeans to live in because of diseases like malaria.

In the 1870s, Europeans controlled only about 10% of Africa, mostly near the coasts. Important areas included Angola and Mozambique belonging to Portugal, the Cape Colony belonging to the United Kingdom, and Algeria belonging to France. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia were not under European control. New technology like steamships, railways, and medicines helped Europeans explore and settle more of Africa.

Causes

Africa and global markets

Sub-Saharan Africa was one of the last parts of the world not yet controlled by outside powers. This made it very interesting for businesses. Countries like Britain, Germany, and France wanted new markets to sell their goods because their usual markets were shrinking. They also wanted raw materials like ivory, rubber, palm oil, cocoa, diamonds, tea, and tin from Africa.

Having control of certain coastal areas in Africa was important for Britain, especially as stopover points on the way to Asia and its empire in India. European countries invested in Africa to gain more wealth and resources, though most of their investments were limited to certain areas.

Strategic rivalry

While tropical Africa wasn’t a major investment area, other overseas regions were. The large area between Egypt and Southern Africa was important for controlling trade routes. Britain especially wanted to protect important waterways like the Suez Canal, finished in 1869, to keep trade routes open between East and West.

Colonies were also seen as valuable in international negotiations and as a way to show national pride. Countries wanted military bases and ports to support their navies and protect trade routes. In the 1880s, explorers like Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza for France and Henry Morton Stanley for Belgium were exploring the Congo River area. Different European countries, including Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, were claiming parts of Africa during this time.

Germany's Weltpolitik (World Policy)

Germany was not always a colonial power. After uniting in 1871, Germany began to build an empire in the 1880s. The leader, Otto von Bismarck, agreed to attend the Berlin Conference in 1884 to set rules for claiming African territories. Germany aimed to become a global power and built up a navy. By 1914, Germany controlled areas such as Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika.

Italy's expansion

After uniting in 1861, Italy wanted to become a major power. They took control of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and later parts of Somalia. In 1889, Italy claimed parts of Ethiopia but faced strong resistance. Later, Italy took over Libya from the Ottoman Empire. In the 1930s, under leader Benito Mussolini, Italy invaded Ethiopia, which was one of the last independent African countries.

Portugal's Pink Map plan

Portugal had been in Africa since the 1400s. They established trading posts along the coast and later expanded inland. In the 19th century, Portugal tried to claim a large area between Angola and Mozambique, known as the “Pink Map.” This plan caused disputes with other European powers, especially Britain, leading to discussions at the Berlin Conference in 1884. Portugal kept some of its claims, but others were rejected.

History and characteristics

Colonization before World War I

Congo

David Livingstone's explorations, continued by Henry Morton Stanley, sparked interest in colonization. Stanley made treaties with African chiefs along the Congo River, forming the basis of the Congo Free State. Meanwhile, Pierre de Brazza raised the French flag over Brazzaville, marking French occupation in the region. By 1890, the Congo Free State controlled much of its territory and sought to expand further.

The Congo Free State imposed harsh rules on the local people, leading to many difficulties. Belgium eventually took control of the area in 1908.

Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan

Suez Canal

The construction of the Suez Canal required many workers, and many faced difficult conditions. Britain later took control of shares in the canal to ensure its strategic importance.

Mahdist War

In the 1870s, economic troubles in Northern Sudan led to the rise of Mahdist forces. This led to conflict with British and Egyptian forces, who eventually gained control of Sudan.

Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

The Berlin Conference brought European leaders together to discuss rules for claiming African territories. They agreed on principles to avoid wars between European powers as they divided Africa. This conference marked the beginning of systematic control over African lands.

Britain's administration of Egypt and South Africa

Britain's control of Egypt and the Cape Colony helped secure the Nile River. In South Africa, Britain dealt with various groups, including the Boers, leading to several conflicts over control of the region.

Anglo-French Agreement

In 1890, Britain and France reached an agreement to settle disputes over colonial claims, allowing both nations to expand their influence in different parts of Africa.

Moroccan Crises

Germany tested the strength of the agreement between Britain and France by challenging French influence in Morocco. This led to diplomatic tensions but eventually reinforced the alliance between Britain and France.

Dervish resistance

The Dervish Movement was a long resistance effort against British and Italian colonial rule in Somalia. Led by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, it lasted for many years and involved many people. The movement was finally defeated when the British used new military technology.

Herero Wars and the Maji Maji Rebellion

In German colonies in Africa, local groups resisted German rule. In both German South West Africa and German East Africa, rebellions occurred. These were eventually suppressed by German forces.

The Portuguese Campaigns of Pacification and Occupation

Portugal also sought to control more African lands. They faced challenges from local groups but eventually established control over areas that are now Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau. These efforts involved many soldiers and took many years to complete.

Philosophy

Colonial consciousness and exhibitions

In the early days, imperialism was mostly done by individual explorers and brave merchants. At first, many leaders, like William Gladstone, did not support taking over other lands. But later, during his time in office from 1880 to 1885, even Gladstone had to agree with the push for colonies. In France, leader Georges Clemenceau strongly opposed taking over lands, thinking it was more important to focus on getting back the Alsace-Lorraine region from Germany.

Groups formed to support the idea of taking over Africa and other distant lands. In places like Germany, France, and Britain, many people wanted strong policies to help their markets grow. Even smaller countries wanted their own place in the world.

Colonial propaganda and jingoism

Many ideas and images were used to make people support taking over other lands. In France, leaders believed it was their duty to bring their way of life to other people. This idea was called the mission civilisatrice. French leaders tried to make their culture and rules part of the places they took over, like French West Africa and Madagascar.

Colonial exhibitions

After World War I, many people in Europe supported having colonies, even if they had never seen one. Exhibitions showing people and cultures from faraway places helped change people’s minds. These shows often displayed people from different lands in ways that seemed strange or unfair by today’s standards.

Countering disease

In the early 1900s, stopping diseases became very important for countries taking over lands in warm places. Teams traveled to find and help people who might get very sick. Also, new medicines and better ways to keep people healthy helped many places grow in population.

Abolition of slavery

Main article: Slavery in Africa § Abolition

Many countries that took over Africa said they wanted to stop slavery. After France took over parts of Africa, many slaves were freed. Other places also worked to end slavery, though it took time and did not disappear completely.

Aftermath

During a time called the New Imperialism, by the late 1800s, Europe added a huge amount of land — about one-fifth of the whole world — to its colonies far away from home. Almost all of Africa became controlled by European countries except for Ethiopia, Liberia, and a small area called Saguia el-Hamra, which later joined Spanish Sahara.

Many European countries wanted to control pieces of Africa. Britain controlled about 30% of Africa’s people, France about 15%, and smaller amounts went to Portugal, Germany, Belgium, and Italy. Countries like Nigeria had many people under British rule.

As European countries competed to control Africa, it caused tensions between them. These tensions helped lead to World War I in 1914.

African colonies listed by colonising power

Belgium

Belgian Congo became the Democratic Republic of the Congo after 1960. Ruanda-Urundi became Rwanda and Burundi.

France

Further information: French Africa

Germany

Germany controlled areas that are now Cameroon, parts of Nigeria, Rwanda, Burundi, most of Tanzania, Namibia, Togo, and parts of Ghana. After World War I, these areas were divided among Britain, France, and Belgium.

Italy

Italy controlled Eritrea, Somalia, and Ethiopia for a time. They also controlled parts of Libya.

During the time between World Wars, Italy combined Eritrea, Somalia, and Ethiopia into Italian East Africa.

Portugal

On June 11, 1951, Portugal began to treat its colonies, including those in Africa, as overseas provinces.

Spain

United Kingdom

Further information: Historiography of the British Empire

The British were especially interested in keeping safe their travel routes to India, which led them to focus first on Egypt and South Africa. Later, they wanted to build a railway from the Cape to Cairo and use Africa’s natural resources. By 1921, Britain controlled about one-third of Africa.

Independent states

Liberia was started and ruled by a group from the United States to help freed slaves from America and the Caribbean. Liberia became independent in 1847 and stayed independent during this time because European powers saw it as connected to the United States.

Ethiopia was thought by some to be under Italy’s control, but it stayed independent after winning a battle in 1896. It was taken over by Italy in 1936 but freed by British forces in 1941.

The Sultanate of Aussa in East Africa stayed independent for a long time because of its skills in desert fighting, but later became part of Italian East Africa.

The Mbunda Kingdom in what is now Angola also stayed independent until Portugal took it over in 1917.

When Germany took control of Namibia in 1884, they left the Ovambo kingdoms alone. Later, South Africa took over Namibia and changed life there a lot. The Ovambo people protested but were stopped.

The Dervish State in Somalia stayed independent from 1899 to 1920, fighting off British forces many times before being defeated.

The Egba people in Nigeria were recognized as independent by Britain until 1914 when they were joined with Nigeria.

Connections to modern-day events

Further information: Decolonisation of Africa and Neocolonialism

Some scholars say that even after African countries became independent, they still struggled because their economies depended too much on crops or resources that foreign countries wanted. They say that policies pushed Africa to fit into Western economic systems.

Petrostates

With globalization, some African countries like Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Sudan became important for oil. These countries work closely with big oil companies and their leaders. Countries like China have become very involved in Africa’s oil industry, buying parts of oil companies and helping build things there. For example, China buys a lot of oil from Sudan and has invested in many oil fields across Africa.