Conquistador

Conquistadors were Spanish and Portuguese explorers and conquerors during the Age of Discovery. They sailed from the Iberian Peninsula to find new lands, start colonies, and make trade routes. Their adventures helped connect Europe with the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

After Christopher Columbus reached the West Indies in 1492, Spanish conquistadors began building a big colonial empire. One famous leader, Hernán Cortés, conquered the Aztec Empire. Another, Francisco Pizarro, led the conquest of the Inca Empire. Portuguese conquistadors, like Afonso de Albuquerque, also explored lands in India, the Persian Gulf, East Africa, and more.

These explorers and conquerors started many cities, like Mexico City and Cusco. They helped shape what we now call Hispanic America and the Portuguese-speaking world. Their journeys changed the history of many parts of the world.

Conquest

Portugal created a path to China in the early 1500s. They sent ships around Africa and set up small settlements. After Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492 and Ferdinand Magellan sailed around the world in 1521, Spanish explorers called conquistadors began traveling in the 1500s. They set up trade paths connecting Europe to these new places.

The Age of Discovery began in 1519 when Hernán Cortés started taking over land from the Aztec people. The Spanish wanted gold and fame. They built towns and took control of the area we now call Mexico. As ships created sea routes, land paths also grew from Cortés' journey to the main city.

For the first time, diseases from Africa and Europe spread to the Americas, and some from the Americas spread back. This included illnesses like smallpox, influenza, and typhus, which made many native people very sick.

In the 1500s, about 240,000 people from Spain arrived in the Americas. By the late 1500s, gold and silver from these lands made up one-fifth of Spain’s money.

Background

Many conquistadors were not trained warriors. They were artisans, lesser nobility, or farmers looking for new chances in the New World because they had few chances in Spain. Some carried simple firearms called arquebuses. Their groups often focused on types of fighting that needed long training, which was too expensive for small groups. These armies included Spanish troops, along with soldiers from other parts of Europe and Africa.

Native allied troops were mostly foot soldiers with different kinds of weapons and armor depending on where they came from. Some were young men without military training, while others were Catholic clergy who helped with paperwork. These native forces also included African slaves and Native Americans, who sometimes were slaves too. They helped in many ways, such as fighting, translating, serving, teaching, healing, and writing. Two Native American women, India Catalina and Malintzin, were forced to work for the Spanish.

Not all conquistadors were from Castile, the main region of Spain. Many came from other places, changing their names or converting to Catholicism to join the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás, known as Juan de Fuca, was of Greek origin and helped discover a strait between Vancouver Island and Washington state in 1592. Others, like German-born Nikolaus Federmann, also joined the expeditions.

Castilian law did not allow Spanish women to travel to America unless they were married and with their husbands. Some women did travel, like María Estrada. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had children with them.

Young European men joined the army to escape poverty. Catholic priests taught them reading, writing, and other subjects. Officers taught military skills. Some leaders were chosen by their fellow soldiers, while others came from noble families. Even some rich nobles became soldiers or missionaries, though usually not the eldest sons.

The two most famous conquistadors were Hernán Cortés, who conquered the Aztec Empire, and Francisco Pizarro, who led the conquest of the Inca Empire. Both were born in Extremadura, where many Spanish conquerors came from.

Catholic religious groups, such as the Dominicans, Carmelites, Franciscans, and Jesuits, helped with exploration and teaching. In 1536, a Dominican friar named Bartolomé de las Casas joined discussions about how to treat the native people.

Conquistadors took on many roles, including leaders, soldiers, and writers. Some even became leaders of native groups. Writers like Pedro Cieza de León and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés shared their stories about the Americas.

History

Early Portuguese period

Infante Dom Henry the Navigator of Portugal, son of King João I, helped start many trips to explore the world. In 1415, Portugal took over Ceuta, their first place outside of Portugal to control.

During the 1400s, Portuguese explorers sailed along the coast of Africa. They set up places to trade things like tools, spices, silver, gold, and people. By 1434, the first group of people were brought to Lisbon to be sold. Trading people became an important part of Portugal’s business.

Birth of the Spanish Kingdom

After his father died in 1479, Ferdinand II of Aragón married Isabella I of Castile, joining their lands together to form Spain. Isabella also agreed to help Christopher Columbus with his first trip, which started Spain’s adventures in new lands.

Before this, the area that is now Spain had many different groups ruling it. After many years of fighting, the Christian groups pushed back groups from Muslim areas, until only a small part called Granada was left.

Treaties

In 1492, Spain found new lands across the ocean. To decide who could explore where, Spain and Portugal made an agreement called the Treaty of Tordesillas. This treaty drew an imaginary line on the map to split the world between the two countries. Portugal got lands east of the line, and Spain got lands west of the line. However, because measuring exact positions back then was very hard, the line wasn’t clear, leading to some disagreements later on.

Spanish exploration

Colonization of the Caribbean, Mesoamerica, and South America

Sevilla la Nueva was the first Spanish settlement on the island of Jamaica. The capital was moved around 1534 to a new place called Spanish Town in present-day Saint Catherine Parish.

After landing on "Guanahani" in the Bahamas, explorer Christopher Columbus found an island he named Cuba. In 1511, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar founded the first Spanish settlement there at Baracoa; other towns followed, including Havana, founded in 1515.

Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar led the conquest of Hispaniola in 1511 and later led expeditions to explore lands further west. These included the 1517 expedition by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba to Yucatán. Velázquez also sent out expeditions led by his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, and later Hernán Cortés. Cortés led an expedition to Mexico, which ended in 1521 with the capture of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. This marked the beginning of Spanish rule in central Mexico, with Mexico City built on its ruins.

Explorer Juan Díaz de Solís discovered the meeting point of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River in 1516. In 1517, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba sailed from Cuba to explore the coast of Yucatán.

Pedro Arias Dávila, governor of La Española, founded Darién in 1519 and Panama City in 1524. He sent explorers north and also sent Pedro de Alvarado to explore Guatemala. An agreement with Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro led to the discovery of Peru.

An expedition led by Pizarro reached Inca territory by 1526. After another expedition in 1529, Pizarro received permission to conquer the region and become its leader. The Viceroyalty of Peru was established in 1542, covering all Spanish holdings in South America.

In 1536, Pedro Fernández de Lugo arrived in Santa Marta, Colombia, and sent an expedition into the interior. This led to the discovery of the indigenous Muisca people and the establishment of the New Kingdom of Granada.

Juan Díaz de Solís returned to the area known as the Río de la Plata, seeking a route for silver. The first settlement was Sancti Spiritu in 1527, and Buenos Aires was established in 1536.

Some of the early conquistadors were people of African descent. After 1521, the wealth from the Aztec Empire helped fund groups of these fighters. One such figure was Juan Garrido, who was born in Africa, lived as a young slave in Portugal, and later gained his freedom. He fought in several conquests. Another was Sebastian Toral, an African slave who earned his freedom and later settled in Mérida, Yucatán.

North America colonization

During the 1500s, Spanish explorers began traveling and settling in North America. They were searching for gold. In 1513, Juan Ponce de León sailed from Puerto Rico to explore Florida and nearby areas. Another goal was finding a legendary place called the "Seven Cities of Gold." In 1536, Francisco de Ulloa was the first European known to reach the Colorado River.

In 1524, the Portuguese explorer Estêvão Gomes explored areas including Nova Scotia, Maine, New York Harbor, and the Hudson River, reaching Florida in 1525.

The leader Cabeza de Vaca led a large group of men from Tampa Bay, Florida in 1527 to explore the mainland of North America. They traveled through Florida, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, facing many challenges along the way.

In 1540–1542, the leader Francisco Vázquez de Coronado searched for the legendary Cities of Gold. His journey took him to central Kansas. Another explorer, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, explored the coast of Alta California in 1542–1543. Coronado’s team included García López de Cárdenas, who became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon while searching for a river.

In 1540, Hernando de Alarcón sailed to the mouth of the Colorado River, aiming to support Coronado’s expedition. Later that year, Melchior Díaz also reached the river’s delta.

In 1565, Luisa de Abrego and Miguel Rodríguez were the first couple to have a recorded Christian marriage in what is now the continental United States.

The Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition explored parts of New Mexico and the southwestern United States in 1581–1582.

Asia and Oceania colonization, and Pacific exploration

In 1525, King Charles I of Spain sent an expedition led by friar García Jofre de Loaísa to reach Asia by finding a western passage to the Pacific Ocean. This aimed to reach the Maluku Islands (Spice Islands) and establish colonies.

In 1564, an expedition led by Miguel López de Legazpi was sent to explore the Maluku Islands. After dealing with local tribes, Legazpi established settlements in the northern and central Philippines in 1571 and became the first governor-general of the Spanish East Indies.

Spanish settlers took control of Tidore in 1603 to trade spices and counter Dutch influence. The Spanish presence lasted until 1663.

In 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo explored the coast of California. In 1601, Sebastián Vizcaíno mapped the coastline in detail. Martín de Aguilar explored as far north as Coos Bay in present-day Oregon.

Spain tried to send missionaries to Japan in the 1600s after Portuguese traders arrived there in 1543.

In 1611, Sebastián Vizcaíno surveyed Japan’s east coast and served as an ambassador for King Philip III in Southeast Asia before returning to Mexico in 1614. He also searched for mythical islands called Rico de Oro (Island of Gold) and Rico de Plata (Island of Silver) in 1608.

Portuguese exploration

The Portuguese were skilled sailors from far away Europe. During the Middle Ages, they explored the seas instead of traveling dangerous land routes.

One reason was to find cheaper ways to trade with places in the east, which were controlled by others. Gold from places like Guinea helped increase trade between the Portuguese and their neighbors, including Spain. These voyages were important for trade, religion, and science.

Portuguese experts improved navigation and ship technology. They made advances in math, maps, and sailing. Under leaders like Afonso V and John II, they explored areas such as the Gulf of Guinea, Morocco, and many oceans. Important voyages included Diogo Cão’s discovery of the Congo River and Bartolomeu Dias’s crossing of the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498, and Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil in 1500.

From peaceful settlements on Atlantic islands, the Portuguese traded spices, ivory, gold, and hardwoods across Africa and Asia. They set up trade ports in places such as Congo, Mozambique, and the Malabar Coast. Their journeys changed global trade and introduced Christianity to many areas.

Iberian Union period (1580–1640)

In 1578, a leader named Ahmad al-Mansur defeated Portugal in a battle. After this, Portugal joined Spain for 60 years under a ruler named Philip II. During this time, Spain and Portugal had some of the same enemies. This led to wars in places in the Americas and Asia.

The Dutch took control of some areas in Brazil that belonged to Portugal. This caused problems for Portugal. Later, Portugal got these areas back after the union ended in 1640. The Spanish also set up a small colony in Taiwan to help protect their trade routes.

Disease in the Americas

When Spanish explorers came to the Americas, they brought diseases that the local people had never seen before. These diseases included smallpox, chicken pox, diphtheria, typhus, influenza, measles, malaria, and yellow fever. Because the native people had no protection against these illnesses, many became very sick.

These diseases spread quickly, often reaching villages before the explorers did. This made it harder for the local people to resist the newcomers. For example, when Francisco Coronado explored the Rio Grande Valley, leaders told him about new sicknesses affecting their tribes. In some places, like the Inca Empire, many people had already died from a smallpox outbreak before the Spanish even arrived.

Scientists have found that droughts and other local diseases also helped reduce the population. One such disease, called cocoliztli, may have been helped by dry conditions and killed many people in the 1500s.

Mythic lands

The conquistadors found new animals, but some stories mixed them up with monsters like giants, dragons, or ghosts. Tales of people lost on strange islands were common.

People searched for magical places like Cipango, a land said to have gold. There were rumors of cities full of gold, called the Seven Cities of Gold or "Cibola," said to be hidden somewhere in the deserts of North America. Books like The Travels of Marco Polo told stories of amazing places, such as a kingdom ruled by a powerful Christian king called "Prester John," a land with a special water that could keep you young forever called the Fountain of Youth, and cities of gold like Quivira, Zuni-Cibola Complex, and El Dorado. Some even thought certain groups of people, called the Ten Lost Tribes or the Amazons, lived in faraway lands.

Explorers traveled far and wide looking for these wonderful places, but many came back without the treasures they hoped to find. Instead, they discovered valuable metals like silver, especially in a place called Potosí in modern-day Bolivia. They also learned about new sea routes, ocean currents, and trade winds, which helped sailors travel better. Some places in Africa and the Americas were named after these imagined cities of gold and rivers of treasure.

Secrecy

The Spanish found places they thought were new lands, like what they called the Island of California. They wanted to keep their discoveries secret from other countries. Sometimes, they wrote wrong dates or facts in their documents. This made it hard for historians to know what really happened.

Many believe that leaders might have known about places like Brazil and North America earlier than they said. Sadly, a big fire after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake destroyed many important records. Some copies were saved and are now important for understanding history. In 2007, a special collection of these records was recognized by UNESCO for its value in learning about the past.

Financing and governance

Main article: Council of the Indies

King Ferdinand II of Aragon took control of lands in the Americas and created a special group called the Council of the Indies to help manage these new areas. This group made important decisions for the Spanish Empire in both the Americas and Asia. They used laws from Spain, like the Inquisition, to guide how things were done.

Special rules called the Laws of Burgos were made in 1512–1513 to help protect the Native Americans. These rules stopped unfair treatment and encouraged them to learn about Catholicism.

Leaders of these adventures had a lot of power, but they had to follow the king's rules. The king kept a share of any treasures found, watched over by an officer called the "veedor." Rich merchants and noblemen who helped pay for the trips also had a say in what happened.

Sometimes, groups of explorers paid for their own trips, bringing their own supplies. Kings and governments also helped with money. Even though the king wanted control, sometimes local leaders organized their own trips, hoping to find treasure.

The king kept important rights for himself. The land taken belonged to the Crown, not to individual leaders. Leaders had to report back to the king. The "veedor" made sure orders were followed and the king's share of treasure was kept safe.

Sometimes soldiers paid for their own gear, and other times the leader provided what they needed.

Famous sailors like the Pinzón brothers helped support early trips with their own money.

Sponsors for these trips included kings, local leaders, and rich men. How the treasures were shared caused many fights. Sometimes, even women and slaves were part of the rewards, leading to more arguments.

Conflicts among conquistadors

Fights over treasure led to many battles. For example, after Spain took control of parts of what is now Peru, Francisco Pizarro sent another leader, Diego de Almagro, to claim a city called Quito. But another man, Sebastián de Belalcázar, had already gotten there without Pizarro’s permission. When another leader, Pedro de Alvarado, came looking for gold, things got more confusing. Later, followers of Diego de Almagro’s son killed Pizarro. These fights over land and power continued for many years.

Military advantages

The conquistadors had some military advantages over the native peoples they met. Many of their strategies came from a long war called the Reconquista.

They were good at forming alliances with local groups. For example, they helped one side in a civil war to defeat the Inca civilization. They also worked with groups who were unhappy with powerful tribes when they overthrew the Aztec civilization. These tactics helped them succeed even though they were outnumbered.

The Spanish and Portuguese soldiers could move quickly over long distances. This helped them surprise larger groups. They used weapons like swords, pikes, and crossbows, and later added firearms. Animals also helped them. Horses gave them mobility that local people were not used to. They also used strong, trained dogs in battle, which frightened many native groups who had never seen such animals before.

Nautical science

The trips made by Spanish and Portuguese sailors helped Europeans learn more about sailing.

Navigation

In the 1300s, sailors used the sun to find their way. They used tools from Greece, such as the astrolabe and quadrant, which they made easier to use. They also created the cross-staff, which helped measure the height of the sun and stars at sea. When João de Santarém and Pedro Escobar reached the Southern Hemisphere in 1471, they started using the Southern Cross to help guide them. They used special tables called Ephemeris, which helped them figure out where they were. These tables were very important for sailing across the ocean and helped sailors find their latitude. Famous sailors like Vasco da Gama and Pedro Álvares Cabral used these tools and tables.

Ship design

Main article: Iberian ship development, 1400–1600

One important ship used by Portuguese sailors was the caravel. It was based on boats used by African fishermen. Caravels were quick and easy to steer, with triangular sails called lateen that helped them change direction easily. Though they didn’t carry much cargo or many people, they were great for exploring new places. Famous caravels included Berrio and Caravela Annunciation. Columbus also used caravels for his journeys.

For longer trips across the ocean, bigger ships were needed. The carrack was a large ship with several masts and high sides. It was used by both Portuguese and Spanish sailors. These ships could carry more goods and people and were used for trading and exploring faraway lands. By the 1500s, carracks could be as big as 2,000 tons.

Winds and currents

Besides exploring close to shore, Portuguese sailors also traveled far out to learn about weather and ocean patterns. They discovered many islands, such as the Bissagos Islands, Madeira, the Azores, Cape Verde, and others. By studying wind patterns, trade winds, and ocean currents, they found the best routes for their ships. They learned to use the winds and currents in the Atlantic Ocean to travel back to Portugal, a method called the "volta do mar" (return of the sea). This knowledge helped them sail farther from land. Later, this idea was used by Spanish sailors to discover the Manila galleon trade route in the Pacific Ocean.

Cartography

In 1339, a mapmaker named Angelino Dulcert created a map showing islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Maps made by sailors like Pedro Reinel and Jorge Reinel became very important. They made detailed maps that showed where lands and waters were. These maps helped sailors know where they were and where they could go next. Cartographers like Fernão Vaz Dourado created beautiful and accurate maps that were used by many explorers.

People

Many brave explorers helped Spain and Portugal build new colonies and trade routes in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania during a time called the Age of Discovery.

One amazing woman was Inés Suárez, a Spanish explorer who helped defend the city of Santiago. Another interesting story is about Gonzalo Guerrero, a Spanish sailor who got shipwrecked and decided to live with a Maya woman.

Spain sent many leaders to explore new lands, including Christopher Columbus, who first reached the Caribbean islands in 1492. Others like Hernán Cortés explored Mexico, and Francisco Pizarro went to Peru. Many more explorers helped map out places like Venezuela, Guatemala, and even parts of the present-day United States.

Portugal also had its share of explorers. People like Afonso de Albuquerque and Vasco da Gama sailed far to places like India and Africa, helping Portugal build its own trade networks. These explorers faced many challenges, but their journeys changed the world forever.