Ancient history

Ancient history is a fascinating time period that begins with the start of writing and recorded human history, lasting until late antiquity. It covers about 5,000 years, from around 3000 BC to AD 500. This era started when the Sumerian people created cuneiform script, one of the earliest forms of writing.

During ancient history, many great civilizations thrived across different continents. Some well-known cultures include the Sumerian, Egyptian, Indus Valley, Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Chinese, Japanese, and Olmec. Each of these civilizations made amazing artworks, such as the Standard of Ur, the Mask of Tutankhamun, the Priest-King, the Venus de Milo, the Sarcophagus of the Spouses, the Augustus of Prima Porta, figures from the Terracotta Army, Haniwa warriors, and colossal heads.

The ancient world also saw big changes in the number of people living on Earth. Because of the Neolithic Revolution, the world population grew very fast. In 10,000 BC, there were about 2 million people, but by 3000 BC, this number rose to 45 million. By AD 500, the population had reached around 209 million. This growth shows how much the world changed during ancient times.

Prehistory

Main articles: Prehistory and Neolithic Revolution

Prehistory is the time before people could write down their stories. We learn about this time mostly through the work of archaeologists, who study old objects and places.

Early humans, called Homo erectus, moved across much of the world a very long time ago. Later, Homo sapiens, who are like us today, appeared much later. Around 50,000 years ago, they left Africa and spread to places like Australia, Europe, Siberia, Japan, and the Americas.

People began to grow food about 9,000 years ago in places like Turkey and the Fertile Crescent. They also started to tame animals such as sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle for food and help with work. Over time, they learned to make tools from metals like copper and bronze, and to create pottery. Writing was a very important invention, and it began in several places including Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, and Mesoamerica.

History by region

West Asia

Main article: Ancient Near East

The ancient Near East is where civilisation began. It was the first place to farm all year, create writing, invent wheels, and form central governments, laws, and large empires. People also began studying the stars and learning about science and math.

Mesopotamia

Further information: Mesopotamia and History of Iraq

Mesopotamia has some of the world's earliest civilisations. Farming villages appeared around 8000 BC and grew during the Ubaid period around 6000 BC. Cities began around 4000 BC and became bigger during the Uruk, Jemdet Nasr, and Early Dynastic periods. Farming allowed people to stay in one place and grow more food, leading to bigger populations and the need for organised work and record-keeping, which helped create writing.

Babylonia was a state in southern Mesopotamia, with Babylon as its capital. It grew when Hammurabi built an empire from the lands of Sumer and Akkad.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire, also called Chaldea, ruled Babylonia from the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Under Nebuchadnezzar II, it conquered Jerusalem. The empire built famous structures like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate in its capital.

Akkad was a city near Babylon that became the capital of the Akkadian Empire. Akkad reached its peak power between 2330 and 2150 BC under King Sargon of Akkad. The Akkadian language spread and became important in diplomacy.

Assyria started as a small state on the Tigris River. It grew into a large empire that controlled much of the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and Anatolia. The capital was Nineveh. Assyria had three main periods of power.

Mitanni was a Hurrian empire in northern Mesopotamia founded around 1500 BC. It controlled Assyria until the 14th century BC and competed with Egypt. Its capital was Washukanni, but its exact location is unknown.

Iranian peoples

Further information: Iranic peoples, Achaemenid Empire, and History of Iran

The Medes and Persians appeared in the Iranian plateau around 1500 BC. They spoke Indo-European languages and were skilled with horses and bows. The Medes created the Median Empire by the 6th century BC after defeating the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

The Achaemenid Empire began with Cyrus the Great, who ruled the Persians and then conquered the Medes, Lydia, and Babylon by 539 BC. The empire used earlier Mesopotamian ideas to govern its large lands. It built roads to help communicate and move troops. Trade and farming grew wealth, but also created differences between social classes. The empire spread ideas and influenced later religions like Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Cyrus' son Cambyses II conquered Egypt, and later Darius the Great expanded the empire to the Indus River, making it the largest at the time. Darius and his son Xerxes I tried to conquer Greece but failed. The Achaemenid Empire fell to Alexander the Great by 330 BC.

Parthia was an Iranian civilisation in northeastern Iran. It was led by the Arsacid dynasty and conquered the Seleucid Empire by around 155 BC under Mithradates I. Parthia fought many wars with the Romans but ended due to internal rebellions in the 3rd century AD.

The Sasanian Empire began after the Parthian Empire ended in AD 224. Its rulers claimed to be descendants of the Achaemenids and made their capital at Ctesiphon in Mesopotamia. Under Shapur I, the empire grew strong and defeated Roman armies. Later, the Sasanians faced pressure from the Kushans and the Byzantine Empire. They built cities and introduced new crops like sugar and rice. In AD 651, the last Sasanian emperor was killed by expanding Islamic Arabs.

Hittites

The Hittites arrived in Anatolia around 1900 BC and later expanded into Mesopotamia. They improved iron working and created light chariots with spoked wheels for war. In 1274 BC, they fought the Egyptians at the Battle of Kadesh. In 1207 BC, their capital Hattusa was destroyed, ending the Hittite Empire.

Israel

Main article: History of Ancient Israel and Judah

Israel and Judah were related kingdoms in the ancient Levant. Israel first appeared in Egyptian records around 1209 BC. Israel emerged in the 9th century BC and later clashed with the Assyrians, who conquered it in 722 BC. The Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Judah in 586 BC. After Babylon fell to the Persian Empire, some exiles returned to Judea under Persian rule until the Maccabean revolt led to independence, followed by Roman conquest.

Phoenicia

Ancient Egypt and the core territory of 15th century BC Assyria, with its two major cities Assur and Nineveh, was upstream of Babylonia and downstream of the states of Mitanni and Hatti.

Phoenicia was an ancient civilisation along the coast of Canaan, in modern-day Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. Phoenician traders spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 to 300 BC. One colony, Carthage, ruled part of the Western Mediterranean until Rome defeated it in the Punic Wars. The Phoenicians created the Phoenician alphabet, which is the basis of the modern alphabet.

Arabia

The history of Pre-Islamic Arabia before Islam in the AD 630s is not well known. Archaeological work in the Arabian Peninsula has been limited, and written sources are mostly from other cultures like the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, and Romans, as well as oral traditions recorded by Islamic scholars. A few small kingdoms existed in Arabia from around AD 100 to about AD 400.

Africa

Egypt

Main article: Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt was a long-lasting civilisation in northeastern Africa, centred around the Nile River. It reached its greatest size during the New Kingdom period in the 2nd millennium BC, stretching from the Nile Delta to Jebel Barkal at the Fourth Cataract. The civilisation began around 3100 BC and was known for farming, writing (hieroglyphs), building pyramids, trading, and religion that included mummification. It was ruled by a series of dynasties.

Egyptian history is divided into periods, starting with the Old Kingdom when large pyramids were built. After 2100 BC, the Old Kingdom broke up into smaller states during the First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom began around 2000 BC when Egypt was reunited under pharaohs from Thebes. The Middle Kingdom ended when the Hyksos conquered northern Egypt around 1650 BC. The Hyksos were driven out, and Egypt was reunited in the New Kingdom around 1550 BC, expanding into Palestine and Syria. The Third Intermediate Period saw rule by priests, Nubian kings, and later Assyria, Persia, and Macedonians.

Afro-Asiatic Africa

Carthage

Main article: Carthage

Carthage was founded around 814 BC by Phoenician settlers. Ancient Carthage was a city-state that ruled an empire through trade and alliances across North Africa and Spain. At its height, its empire included most of the western Mediterranean. Carthage was constantly at war with the Roman Republic, leading to the Punic Wars. After the final Punic War, Carthage was destroyed and occupied by Roman forces, and its territory became part of the Roman Empire.

Nubia

The Ta-Seti kingdom in Nubia was conquered by Egyptian rulers around 3100 BC, but by 2500 BC the Nubians had created a new kingdom further south, known as the Kingdom of Kush, centred on the upper Nile with a capital at Kerma. During the Egyptian New Kingdom period, Kush was conquered by Egypt. However, by 1100 BC a new kingdom of Kush formed with a capital at Napata. Nubian rulers conquered Egypt around 760 BC and kept control for about a century.

Aksum and ancient Ethiopia

The Kingdom of Aksum was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, centred in present-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately AD 100 to 940, growing from the Iron Age proto-Aksumite period around the 4th century BC. At its height in the early 6th-century AD, Aksum extended through much of modern Ethiopia and across the Red Sea to Arabia. Its capital was Aksum, now in northern Ethiopia.

Niger-Congo Africa

Nok culture

Main article: Nok culture

The Nok culture appeared in Nigeria around 1000 BC and disappeared around AD 200. The Nok civilisation was known for producing life-sized Terracotta statues and using iron smelting, possibly independently developed.

Sahel

Djenné-Djenno

Main article: Djenné-Djenno

The civilisation of Djenné-Djenno was in the Niger River Valley in Mali and is one of the oldest urban centres in sub-Saharan Africa. The site, about 3 kilometers from the modern town, was involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. It was occupied from 250 BC to AD 900. The city may have been abandoned and moved due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné. Sites like Djenné-Djenno show that advanced trade networks and societies existed in West Africa long before Southwest Asian traders arrived.

The Persian Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BC

Dhar Tichitt and Oualata

Main articles: Dhar Tichitt and Oualata

Dhar Tichitt and Oualata were early urban centres dated to 2000 BC in present-day Mauritania. About 500 stone settlements were in the region. The inhabitants fished and grew millet. Around 300 BC, the region became drier, and the settlements declined, likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. Tichit was related to the later Ghana Empire. Old Jenne began to be settled around 300 BC, producing iron and having a large population.

Bantu expansion

Main article: Bantu expansion

People speaking early Bantu languages began spreading through southern Africa around 2000 BC, moving past the Congo River and into the Great Lakes area. By AD 1000, these groups had spread throughout southern Africa south of the equator. Iron metallurgy and agriculture spread with them, including crops like millet, oil palms, sorghum, and yams, and domesticated cattle, pigs, and sheep. These technologies helped populations grow, and settled communities became common in sub-Saharan Africa except in deserts or dense forests.

South Asia

Main articles: History of South Asia, History of India, and Ancient India

Tools from the Paleolithic period have been found in India dating back 200,000 years. Neolithic sites near the Indus Valley date to around 8000 BC. Agriculture began in the Indus Valley around 7000 BC and reached the Ganges Valley by 3000 BC. Barley, cotton, and wheat were grown, and people kept cattle, goats, and sheep.

The Indus Valley Civilisation developed around 3000 BC in the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys of northeast Afghanistan, Pakistan, and western India. Also called Harappan, after the city of Harappa, this civilisation grew from earlier farming communities into cities. They made and traded jewelry, figurines, and seals across Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Iran. Chickens were domesticated along with earlier crops and animals. They created their own writing system, the Indus Valley script, which remains mostly undeciphered. The exact structure of society and how the cities were governed is unknown. By about 1600 BC, many Indus Valley cities, including Mohenjo-Daro, were abandoned. The reason for this decline is not known.

Indo-European speaking peoples began moving into India about 1500 BC. The Rigveda, written in Sanskrit, dates to this time and marks the start of the Vedic period. Between 1500 and 500 BC, these peoples spread across most of India and began forming small cities. Vedic society was organised into four broad castes, which later became central to Indian society. Religion evolved into Hinduism, which spread to Southeast Asia. Siddhartha Gautama, born around 560 BC in northern India, founded Buddhism, which also spread across Eastern and Southeastern Asia. This period also saw the creation of the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

The kingdom of Magadha rose to power under several dynasties, reaching its peak under Ashoka Maurya, one of India's most famous emperors. During Ashoka's reign, the Chola, Chera, and Pandya kingdoms ruled in the South, while Devanampiya Tissa controlled Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. These southern kingdoms were allied with the Maurya Empire. Devanampiya Tissa and Ashoka exchanged Buddhist missionaries.

Most of North India was reunited under the Gupta Empire beginning with Chandragupta I around AD 320. The empire grew to include much of India except the Deccan Plateau and the far south. This was a time of peace, with Gupta rulers often leaving local administration to local leaders. The Gupta Empire weakened due to raids by the Hunas and broke up into smaller kingdoms by the end of the fifth century AD. India remained divided until the rise of the Mughal Empire in the 1500s.

Southeast Asia and Oceania

Main articles: Peopling of Southeast Asia and History of Southeast Asia

The Neolithic period in Southeast Asia saw migrations from southern China by Austronesian, Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai, and Hmong–Mien speakers.

Territorial principalities in Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia developed economies around 500 BC based on farming surplus and coastal trade. States in the Malayan-Indonesian zone and Indochinese polities like the Pyu city-states, Văn Lang kingdom, and Funan shared these traits. Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BC, lasted until 258 BC under the Hồng Bàng dynasty, part of the Đông Sơn culture.

Intensive wet-rice farming allowed communities to produce surplus crops, which the ruling elite used to support public works like canals and fortifications.

Mainland Southeast Asia

The earliest evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at Ban Chiang in northeast Thailand and among the Phùng Nguyên culture of northern Vietnam around 2000 BC.

The Đông Sơn culture developed bronze production and made refined bronze and iron tools and weapons. By about 500 BC, they produced large, decorated bronze drums using the lost-wax process. This advanced metalworking developed independently of Chinese or Indian influence and is linked to organised, centralised communities with large populations.

Between 1000 BC and 100 AD, the Sa Huỳnh culture flourished along the south-central coast of Vietnam. Archaeological sites have revealed ceramic jars, cooking pots, glass items, jade earrings, and metal objects near rivers and the coast.

Austronesia

Main article: Austronesian peoples

Around 3000 to 1500 BC, a large migration of Austronesians began from Taiwan. Population growth drove this movement. These settlers reached northern Luzon in the Philippines, mixing with the earlier Australo-Melanesian population. Over the next thousand years, they spread to the rest of the Philippines, the Celebes Sea, and Borneo. From southwestern Borneo, they migrated to Sumatra and southern Vietnam, becoming the ancestors of Malayic and Chamic language speakers.

After reaching the Philippines, Austronesians colonised the Northern Mariana Islands by 1500 BC, becoming the first people in Remote Oceania. The Chamorro migration retained rice cultivation. Palau and Yap were settled by 1000 BC.

Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG)

Another migration branch was the Lapita culture, which spread to islands off the coast of northern New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and coastal New Guinea and Island Melanesia by 1200 BC. They reached Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga by 900 to 800 BC. This was the furthest reach of Austronesian expansion until around 700 AD, when colonisation continued to the Cook Islands, Tahiti, the Marquesas, Hawaii, Rapa Nui, and New Zealand. Polynesian islands were connected by long-distance sailing, except Rapa Nui, which had limited contact. Islands like the Pitcairns, Kermadec Islands, and Norfolk Islands were settled by Austronesians but later abandoned. Evidence suggests Austronesians may have reached South America from Polynesia, trading with Indigenous peoples.

Austronesians created prehistoric maritime trade networks in Island Southeast Asia, including the Maritime Jade Road from 2000 BC to 1000 AD. They also established spice trade networks with Sri Lanka and Southern India by 1000 to 600 BC.

They had early contacts with Africa, possibly before 500 BC, based on archaeological finds like banana phytoliths in Cameroon and Uganda and Neolithic chicken bones in Zanzibar. An Austronesian group from the Makassar Strait settled Madagascar, either directly or via mixed populations in East Africa. Estimates for this settlement range from the 1st century AD to the 6th–7th centuries AD. They likely followed a coastal route through South Asia and East Africa. Genetic evidence shows some Austronesian individuals reached Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.

By the 2nd century BC, Austronesian trade networks in Southeast Asia connected with South Asian, Middle Eastern, eastern African, and Mediterranean trade routes, forming the Maritime Silk Road. Before the 10th century, Southeast Asian Austronesian traders dominated the eastern routes, while Tamil and Persian traders used the western parts. This exchange of goods between East and Southeast Asia to Europe and eastern Africa began.

Srivijaya, an Austronesian polity founded at Palembang in 682 AD, controlled trade around the straits of Malacca and Sunda and the South China Sea emporium. It emerged by conquering neighbouring thalassocracies like Melayu, Kedah, Tarumanagara, and Mataram, controlling sea lanes and the spice trade between India and China.

East Asia

Main article: History of East Asia

China

The Chinese civilisation in the Yellow River valley is one of the world's earliest. Neolithic cultures like the Longshan and Yangshao from 5000 BC made pottery, farmed millet, and wove hemp and silk. Rice was farmed, and pigs and water buffalo were kept. Longshan potters may have used a pottery wheel. Chinese traditions mention three ancient dynasties before the Qin and Han: the Xia, Shang, and Zhou. The Shang dynasty, dated to 1766–1122 BC, was central to Chinese culture. Bronze, chariots, and weapons helped Shang control northern China. Cities like Ao and Yinxu have been excavated, showing walls, palaces, archives, tombs, and workshops. A writing system developed from oracle bones, with over 100,000 still existing.

Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Shang were conquered by the Zhou dynasty from the Wei River valley. The Zhou rulers used the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule, a concept that influenced later dynasties. The Zhou initially ruled from near Xi'an but expanded into the Yangtze River valley. Zhou administration was decentralised, with local leaders collecting tribute and providing military support.

In the 8th century BC, power became decentralised during the Spring and Autumn period. Local military leaders gained power, and invasions forced the Zhou to move their capital east to Luoyang. Hundreds of states emerged, with local strongmen holding most power while nominally serving the Zhou kings. The Hundred Schools of Thought, including Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Mohism, developed in response to political changes.

After further consolidation, seven states remained by the end of the 5th century BC, beginning the Warring States period. Though a nominal Zhou king existed until 256 BC, he had little power. The state of Qin annexed neighbouring territories and by 213 BC unified China under Ying Zheng, who declared himself the First Emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi.

Qin Shi Huangdi ruled China directly with absolute power. Unlike earlier feudal dynasties, the Qin ruled centrally. Legalism was enforced nationwide, and books promoting rival ideas like Confucianism were banned. The Qin built the first continuous Great Wall using forced labour, launched invasions to annex Vietnam, standardised writing, unified legal systems, and set standard measurements. After the emperor's death, rebellions began, and the Han dynasty took power, ruling China for over four centuries with a brief interruption from AD 9 to 23. The Han promoted iron tools, leading to food surpluses and population growth. Silk production increased, and paper was invented. Despite military and economic success, aristocrats' disobedience strained the empire, leading to the Yellow Turban Rebellion, which accelerated the empire's decline. After AD 208, the Han split into rival kingdoms. China remained divided for nearly 400 years.

Neighbours of China

The East Asian nations next to China were deeply affected by Chinese civilisation. Northwestern Korea and Northern Vietnam were brought under Han rule by Han Wudi in the second century BC, leading to cultural influences for centuries. Wudi also faced threats from the Xiongnu, a nomadic people from Central Asia. Wudi's invasions ended the Xiongnu state.

In 108 BC, the Han dynasty conquered much of northern Korea. When Han China declined, three kingdoms in Korea – Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla – emerged and expelled the Chinese. Goguryeo and Baekje were later destroyed by a Tang dynasty and Silla alliance. Silla then drove out the Tang dynasty in 676 to control most of the Korean peninsula.

Jomon culture formed in Japan before 500 BC and, under Chinese influence, became the Yayoi culture by AD 200, building large tombs. In the 300s, a kingdom formed in the Yamato plain, possibly influenced by Korean refugees.

Americas

Further information: History of the Americas, Pre-Columbian era, and New World

In pre-Columbian times, several large, centralised civilisations developed in the Western Hemisphere, in Mesoamerica and western South America. Agriculture also spread east of the Andes in South America and in the continental United States.

Andean civilisations

Further information: Norte Chico civilisation

Ancient Andean civilisation began with organised fishing communities from 3500 BC. They built large monuments as community centres. They grew beans, cotton, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and by 2000 BC added potatoes to their crops. The Chavin culture, based around the Chavin cult, emerged around 1000 BC, creating temples, artworks, and sophisticated textiles. Gold, silver, and copper were used for jewelry and small tools.

After Chavin's decline, cities formed around 200 BC. Cities like Huari, Pucara, and Tiahuanaco had over 10,000 residents. From AD 300, the Mochica culture arose along the Moche River. They left painted pottery depicting their society. Other large states in the Andes after AD 100 included the Nazca culture, who built a ceremonial centre at Cahuachi and the Nazca lines in the desert.

Mesoamerica

Further information: Mesoamerica

Agriculture began around 8000 BC in Mesoamerica, with avocados, beans, chili peppers, gourds, and squashes. By 4000 BC, maize was grown, followed by tomatoes. Settlements appeared around 3000 BC, and by 2000 BC most of Mesoamerica practiced agriculture. Some animals like turkeys and dogs were domesticated, but no large animals for transport or labour existed.

Around 1200 BC, the first Olmec centre, San Lorenzo, was founded and remained until around 800 BC when La Venta took over, later succeeded by Tres Zapotes around 400 BC. These Olmec centres included tombs, temples, and ceremonial sites. They created large stone heads and other sculptures. Jade jewelry and objects were found throughout Mesoamerica, likely through trade. The Olmec writing system recorded their calendar and influenced later cultures.

After the Olmecs declined, new civilisations arose, including the Mayans, Zapotecs, and Teotihuacan. The Zapotecs began around 500 BC in the Oaxaca Valley at Monte Alban, which grew to 25,000 residents by AD 200 with large stone temples and a plaza. They had a writing system and calendar but were abandoned by AD 900. Teotihuacan developed around AD 200 and grew to perhaps 200,000 inhabitants, lasting until AD 700 when it was destroyed.

Maya culture began around AD 300 in the Yucatan Peninsula and Guatemala. During the Classical Maya period (600 years), over 80 Mayan sites were built with temples, pyramids, and palaces. Tikal was the most influential. Mayan civilisation was based on city-states often at war but continued trading. A priestly elite kept astronomical and calendrical records using a writing system of glyphs. History, poetry, and other records were kept in books, most lost after the Spanish conquest. They studied mathematics, including the concept of zero. The Mayan civilisation declined around AD 800, and most cities were abandoned soon after.

Northern America

Organised societies in ancient United States or Canada were often mound builders. The Poverty Point culture in Louisiana created over 100 mound sites. The Mississippi River was central to trade and culture. After Poverty Point, cultures like the Hopewell emerged in the Southeastern United States during the Early Woodland period. Before AD 500, many mound-building societies remained hunter-gatherers.

Europe

Main articles: Neolithic Europe, Bronze Age Europe, and Iron Age Europe

Greece

Main articles: Etruscans, Ancient Greece, and Culture of ancient Rome

Rome

Ancient Rome began as a small agricultural community on the Italian peninsula in the 8th century BC, influenced by Greece and the Etruscans. Traditionally, Rome started as a monarchy that became a republic. Rome expanded through the Italian peninsula in the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, fighting Carthage in the Punic Wars, which ended with Carthage's destruction in 146 BC. Rome then expanded into Greece and the eastern Mediterranean. Internal conflicts led to the republic becoming an empire ruled by an emperor by the first century AD. The Empire spread Roman culture throughout its borders during the first and second centuries AD.

Several factors led to the decline of the Roman Empire. The western half, including Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, split into independent kingdoms in the 5th century AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, ruled from Constantinople, became the Byzantine Empire after AD 476, marking the traditional fall of Rome and the start of the Middle Ages.

Late antiquity

Main article: Late antiquity

The Roman Empire changed significantly under Diocletian, who split it into eastern and western halves ruled by multiple emperors. Constantine the Great began Christianising the empire and established Constantinople as a new capital. Germanic tribe migrations disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century, leading to the western empire's collapse in 476 and replacement by barbarian kingdoms. The fusion of Greco-Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions formed the cultural foundations of Europe. Scholars have tried to link European late antiquity to other areas in Eurasia.

Nomads and Iron Age peoples

Further information: Anglo-Saxons and Celts

The Celts were diverse tribal societies in Iron Age Europe. Proto-Celtic culture formed in the Early Iron Age in Central Europe (Hallstatt period). By the later Iron Age (La Tène period), Celts spread across wide areas: Ireland, the Iberian Peninsula, Galatia in Anatolia, and Scotland. By the early centuries AD, following Roman expansion and Germanic migrations, Celtic culture was limited to the British Isles.

The Huns were a nomadic people who formed a large state in Eastern Europe by about AD 400 under Attila. They fought both sections of the Roman Empire but dissolved after Attila's death. The Hun-Xiongnu connection is controversial and disputed.

Germanic migrations to Britain from northern Germany and southern Scandinavia began in the 5th century. Groups like the Goths migrated into western Europe, with the Ostrogoths settling in Italy before being conquered by the Lombards. The Visigoths settled in Spain, creating a kingdom until conquered by Islamic rulers in the AD 700s.

Several Indo-European speaking peoples lived in the Balkan peninsula, including the Thracians and Illyrians, divided into many tribes. The first Illyrian kingdom was the Enchelei, formed in the 8th–7th century BC and reaching its peak under King Bardylis. The Ardiani were known for piracy and wars against the Roman Empire, fighting them three times between 229 BC and 168 BC.

Developments

Religion and philosophy

Main articles: Axial Age, History of philosophy, and History of religion

Further information: Religions of the ancient Near East, Ancient Egyptian religion, Historical Vedic religion, Ancient Greek religion, Hellenistic philosophy, Roman imperial cult, Early Christianity, and Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism

When people began writing about their history, they also started creating religions. Many ancient cultures believed in many gods who acted like humans. These gods were often connected to the land, and each city or country might choose a special god to honor. People would build statues and give gifts to their gods.

Around this time, new ways of thinking grew, especially around the 6th century BC. Important religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism began in India, and Zoroastrianism started in Persia. The ideas of Taoism, Legalism, and Confucianism shaped thinking in China and later spread to Korea and Japan. In the west, the ideas of Greek thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle spread through Europe and the Middle East.

Science and technology

Main article: Ancient technology

Further information: History of science in early cultures and History of mathematics

Before people could write, they already used tools, fire, and farming. Working with metals was very important for making new inventions. Ancient people also learned about medicine, using plants to help heal sicknesses and wounds.

The ancient Egyptians were good at building and made simple machines to help with construction. They also helped make ships for sailing. Both the Babylonians and Egyptians watched the stars and recorded what they saw.

A clever way to bring water to dry places, called Qanats, started in Iran and possibly the Arabian peninsula. In India, a new way of counting using numbers, including the idea of zero, was created. In China, people invented early forms of paper.